A. North Sub-tropical Humid landscapes

There are three distinct units of relief in the West Trans-Caucasus: the Colchic lowland, the foot-hills and the Imereti upland.

The majority of marshes and lakes are concentrated in the central part of the Colchic lowland at 20m below sea level. Paliastom is the largest lake among them. In this part of the Colchic lowland, the drainage works have been conducted for already a number of years. However, these works have not yet yielded a great success because of low hypsometric location of the plain hindering the formation of a drainage network. The edge of the Colchic lowland gradually rises, reaching 100-200m above sea level. This part is more suitable for land reclamation. That is why the great majority of marshes existing here have been dried and transformed for arable lands. Territories with hilly relief are met above them. On approaching the mountains, they turn into foot-hills, made of neogenic and palaeogenic clays and sandstone, and more rarely, of limestone.

The Lenkoran lowland and a zone of hills and foot-hills are located in the south-eastern Caucasus (Hyrcan landscapes). The Lenkoran lowland is an area of 5-20km width characterised by flat relief. Marshes appear rarely. Foot-hills with an erosive-denudative relief are distributed as a narrow (2-5-km) strip.

The climate is humid sub-tropical. The January temperature varies within +4⁰C,+7⁰C and the July – +24⁰C,+26⁰C. The annual amount of precipitation fluctuates within 1,000-2,500m. The climate of Hyrcan landscapes is close to that of Colchic landscapes. However, it has a number of specific features, among them a hot arid summer, excessively humid autumn, and mild warm snowless or less snowy winter being the most prominent. Nevertheless, winter temperature within Hyrcan landscapes is 2-3 degrees less than that within the Colchida. The summer minimum of precipitation gives the Hyrcan landscapes the features of the Mediterranean climate. The relatively southern location (38⁰C-39⁰C N.L.) determines the highest values of total radiation and radiation balance throughout the Caucasus.

At present, Natural Territorial Units (NTUs) slightly changed by human activities are met only in nature reserves. However, not long ago (by description of Prince Vakhushtii, the 18^th century) a major part of the Colchida was covered by deep forests.

In the past, polydominant forests prevailed in the Colchic lowland and foot-hills, and now they are spread only as separate spots in different parts of the region. Chestnuts, alders, maples and ash-trees dominate in arboreal layers. Beech trees, oaks etc. appear from place to place. Under this forest canopy, rhododendron, cherry laurel, box-tree, ilex form evergreen under-woods. Red and yellow soils are formed underneath the forests.

Hemygileas are distributed on the coastline of Ajara, where evergreen plants occupy all vegetation tiers, except for the top. The NTUs of the Colchic forests with leaf-shedding evergreen under-woods are found in drier places of the habitat.

In humid areas of the central part of the Colchic lowland, NTUs composed of Quaternary alluvial deposits with sphagnum-reed marshes and marshy alder-thickets on peat bog and mineral- bog soils are distributed.

Overall, red and yellow soils characteristic of sub-tropics prevail in Colchic landscapes.

The Colchic lowland and foot-hill and hilly landscapes are considerably changed by human activities and natural-agrarian territorial units (NTUs) with maize crops, tea, and more rarely citrus occupy drained lands.

A major part of the Lenkoran lowland and mountainous parts are transformed by human activities. In some areas, marshy alder thickets, alpine alder and oak woods with lianas are met. In the past, foot-hills were covered by chestnut, oak, parrotia, hornbeam forests with silk acacia and thorny lianas (blackberry, etc), but now the majority of them are replaced by arable lands.

Lower parts of the plains are characterised by silt-marshy sub-tropical, podzol and podzol-glean soils, while sub-tropical yellow podzol soils prevail on elevated parts.

Sub-Colchic forest landscapes are met in Turkey, on south coastline of the Black Sea, westward from Trabzon. Here they are distributed as small parcels and are met near the cities of Heresum, Ordu and Sinop. They are characterised by the climate and vegetation common to the Colchida.

B. Sub-Mediterranean Semi-Humid Landscapes are spread as spotty areas in different parts of the Caucasus.

This sub-type of landscapes is largely found in the north-western part of the Black Sea coast close to the cities of Tuapse and Anapa.

The area between Novorossiisk and Anapa is characterised by a plain relief, turning into hilly inter-mountainous depressions. Foot-hill and hilly landscapes appear in the section between Novorosiisk and Tuapse. The climate is weakly continental Sub-Mediterranean. NTUs of Sub-Mediterranean type with steppe, xeric and phrygana vegetation prevail there. These NTUs in majority of cases are distributed on brown soils and rendzins. Along with this, mixed oak forests of Quercus pubescens, Q.Iberica, Q. Petraea, and Q. Hartvwissaana are met. Pine forests are represented by two species: P. Stankewiczi and P. Pitiusae. Juniper and open forests are also widely spread. South slopes and crests are over-grown by phrygana vegetation and shiblyaks (dry shrubs), mostly on brown soils and rendzins.

At present, arable lands are widely spread there. Of special interest is a part of Sub-Mediterranean landscapes in the region of the Pitsunda cape and the Myusera upland. These landscapes have features transitional to Colchic. They are such unique for Georgia that the Pitsunda -Myusera nature reserve was established there. In the light of sufficient amount of precipitation, the relative dryness (deficit of precipitation) is observed in the period from May to June that determines an effect of Mediterranean climate with relatively arid summer. Soils on the Pitsunda cape are sandy, whilst brown, yellow-brown and yellow (zheltozem) soils prevail on the Myusera upland.

The Pitsunda cape is covered by coastline pine forests of Pinus pitiusae, mixed broad-leaved forests of hornbeam and hornbeam thickets with a layer of box-trees. The bottoms of Myusera upland are covered by polydominant broad-leaved forests represented by hornbeam, beech, chestnut, maple and evergreen under-woods of Rhododendron ponticum. Crests and slopes of the southern slope are covered by oak-groves of Quercus iberica with under-woods of azaleas and heather. Abyssal lines of the shore are covered by cliff forests represented by Pinus pitsunda, wild strawberry tree, heather and other Mediterranean species.

In the East and Central Trans-Caucasus, large areas are occupied by sub-Mediterranean semi-humid landscapes framing the Inner Kartli and Lower Kartli plains and, partially, the Kura-Araks lowland. They are distributed at 400-800 m above sea level, rarely reaching 1,000m. Sometimes they are met at 200-300m above sea level. Foot-hill and hilly erosive-denudative, denudative-accumulative or erosive-accumulative and rarely, arid-denudative reliefs are met here. They comprise ridges, depressions, terraced valleys, foot-hills with alluvial fans, plateau and plateau-type elevations, ravines and badlands. The climate is transitional from sub-tropical to thermo-moderate. Annual distribution of precipitation is similar to that of the Sub-Mediterranean climate with two: summer and winter minimums and well-expressed one spring maximum.

The variety and the distribution of NTUs are strongly related to thermal and moisture conditions. Along the small meadow plots and ravines and the slopes of the western macro-slope, NTUs with shiblyak vegetation grown on brown soils (represented by hornbeam, paliurus, mixed shrubbery shiblyaks) are met. With increasing humidity on the northern slopes and terraces, mesophyte meadows on meadow, brown and alluvial soils are spread. Large areas are also occupied by steppe vegetation.

Sub-Mediterranean Semi-humid Landscapes are one of the most cultivated landscapes in the Caucasus. Natural-agrarian units with grain crops, vineyards, vegetable gardens and technical crops are located here.

C. North Mediterranean Landscapes are distributed along the coastline of the Black Sea in Turkey near the cities of Ordu and Sinop. They represent relatively small sections of typical Mediterranean landscapes. They are characterised by plain, foot-hill and hilly reliefs. Vegetation cover is represented by maquis, pseudo-maquis, beech and oak forests with deciduous bushy under-woods. In difficult to pass and excessively humid, shady gorges, polydominant Colchic forests are grown. These landscapes are transformed to some extent, especially, in plain areas.

D. North Sub-Tropical Semi-Arid Landscapes

Plain, sometimes ridged accumulative and arid-denudative relief is characteristic of these landscapes. Sloppy, terraced and mounded plains composed of clay, send-stone and pebbles appear here as well.

The Iori-Adjinaur upland is characterised by plateau, depression, arid-denudatiative relief composed of molassa formations.

The climate is sub-tropical in the Inner Kartli plain and becomes transitional to moderately warm, dry and moderately and slightly continental in the Iori-Adjinaur upland.

Landscape differentiation here is connected with moisture conditions. Shiblyaks and steppes are spread on chermozems, while brown and grey-brown soils are met in areas with significant humidity. Dry steppes on ash-brown soils with semi-desert vegetation are also met here.

Natural-agrarian units with orchards and gardens are concentrated on irrigated lands. Lands unsuitable for irrigation are used for winter pasturing.

E. North Sub-Tropical Arid Landscapes are mostly distributed within the Kura-Araks lowland and Absheron peninsula. In Georgia, they are met in the Eldar lowland.

Flat lowlands, and rarely wavy and terraced plains made of Quaternary deposits prevail here. In terms of their origin, they represent alluvial, delta, alluvial-proluvial and marine abrasive-accumulative plains and lowlands. In some places, there are sections with hilly arid-denudative relief. The climate is sub-tropical, arid, moderately and slightly continental. NTUs with fragrant-absinthe, saltine desert and semi-desert vegetation on grey and grey-brown soils dominate here.

F. Thermo-Moderate Semi-Humid landscapes are spread within the Alazani-Avtoran lowland in the East Trans-Caucasus and the left bank of river Kuban from Taman peninsula to the valley of river Laba. They are distributed at 600m above sea level.

These landscapes are characterised by sloppy alluvial, alluvial-proluvial plains, in some places covered by alluvial cones composed of Quaternary deposits: pebbles, sands, loam and clays. Floodplain of rivers Alazani, Agrichai and Kuban are very distinct. The banks of the Alazani-Avtoran lowland are distinguished by plains with hilly erosive-denudative and erosive-accumulative relief. Saline parcels are met occasionally.

The climate is moderately warm, semi-humid and weakly continental. Annual sums of precipitations make up 500-700mm.

Natural-territorial units occupy no more than 5-10% of this territory. Riparian (Tugay) forests grown on alluvial meadow and saturated soils represent them. Forests in the East Trans-Caucasus consist of oaks, zelcova and are characterised by a great variety of species of trees, shrubs and lianas. Dry terraces are over-grown by oak forests with various shrubberies, whilst much drier terraces with alluvial soils are grown by beech and hornbeam forests. On the Kuban section, vegetation is represented by hornbeam-oak and oak (Quercus robur, Q.petrae, Carpinus caucasica) forests, which belong to the group of the North Caucasian humid mezophilous oak-groves. Forests are usually grown on wide terraces and floodplains with different types of grey soils. Considerable areas are also occupied by alluvial and grey soils.

At present, natural-agrarian units with vineyards and grain crops prevail on the Alazani-Avtoran lowland. Inhabited territories occupy vast areas as well. The Kuban section is characterised by natural-agrarian units grown by crops (wheat, barley, and maize), orchards, and tobacco plantations. Meadow forests are widely used as pastures.

G. Temperate Semi-Arid Landscapes occupy large areas in the North Caucasus, prevailing in the pre-Caucasus. Four types of relief are met within these landscapes:

4. Uplands (Stavropol) with structural-denudative plateaux, plains, and hills with denudative-accumulative relief forms.

The climate is moderate, transient to thermo-moderate in Dagestan. The temperature in January falls as low as -3˚, -5˚ (in Dagestan - 2˚), but in July equals + 20˚, + 24˚. Although in geo-morphologic terms, sub-mountain and intermountain plains make up a single structure, climatic and especially, moisture conditions vary greatly within the plains. This is connected with both significant altitude variations (from 50 to 700m) and the “barrier"-like effect of increasing precipitation in the territories adjacent to mountains. Consequently, the amount of precipitation increases up to 350-400 mm in the lower parts of the plains, becoming even equal to 500-600 mm in the upper parts. The duration of snow cover increases as well and lasts from 40 to 70 days.

Climate variability affects vegetation cover. Overall, there is a dominance of steppe ecosystems. However, in upper parts of plains they are replaced by oak and oak-hornbeam forests.

Following major NTUs are met within the moderate semi-arid landscapes: dry semi-desert steppes on chestnut soils; absinthe-cereal (with absinthe Taurus and Larha) steppes on chestnut soils and chernozems (black soils); steppes rich in grass on black soils; steppified meadows, meadow-steppes and meadows on black soils and meadow chernozems; thickets and fragrant thickets on brown and chestnut strong skeleton soils, shiblyaks on brown and grey-brown soils (only in Dagestan); oak hemi-xeric forests on brown and brown forest soils; mezophyte oak forests with well-developed herbage on brown forest soils; and oak hornbeam mezophyte forests with rare herbaceous cover on brown forest soils.

At present, naturally growing vegetation is almost entirely replaced by agricultural lands though, varying from region to region. The Pre-Kuban lowland is occupied by sugar beet, sunflower and crops. The Stavropol upland is grown by such crops as wheat, barley, and maize. Similar territorial units prevail also on foot-hills and intermountain plains of Kabardinia, North Ossetia, Ingushetia and Chechnya. Natural-irrigating units with vineyards and orchards are characteristic of Dagestan.

H. Temperate Arid landscapes have limited distribution in the Caucasus and occupy small areas in northern part of Dagestan and eastern part of Stavropol region, being well-adjusted to the south-western part of the Pre-Caspian lowland.

The relief is flat, weakly distorted. Marine, delta and mixed marine-delta accumulative plains prevail here. The most widespread form of relief is Aolean. The Kuma-Manich depression is characterised by the relief of lake-alluvial nature. Southwards from Makhachkala, desert and semi-desert landscapes stretch as 10-20km line along the Caspian Sea coastline to Derbent. The relief is represented by marine abrasive-accumulative plain with coastal sands, gradually turning into a sub-mountain downhill plain.

The climate within the pre-Caspian lowland is moderate (the temperature in January varies within -3˚, -6˚); being thermo-moderate southwards to Makhachkala with average annual temperature of the coldest month varying from -1.5˚ to +1.1˚. The temperature in July riches +24˚, +25˚. Annual amount of precipitation is 250-350mm.

Following NTUs pre-dominate within the Temperate Arid landscapes: xeric semi-shrubbery and xeric halophytic semi-shrubbery saline deserts on grey soils. Absinthe-cereal semi-deserts on chestnut soils appear rarely.

Northern parts of these landscapes are the least transformed by anthropogenic activities. They are mostly used as winter pastures. The coastline of the Caspian Sea has undergone significant transformations for agriculture uses and is mostly occupied by natural-irrigation units of vineyards, orchards and vegetable gardens.

I. Hydromorphic and Sub-Hydromorphic Landscapes are distributed in those parts of the Caucasus, where ground moisture becomes the major factor for forming landscape types. Such conditions usually prevail in areas with flat relief, where an excessive atmospheric or ground humidity promotes the formation of wetlands. Floodplains of large rivers located in areas with arid climate belong to these landscapes. They, in great deal, differ from steppe or desert landscapes, surrounding them, for their tugay shrubbery and meadow vegetation.

A comparatively low marshy part of the Colchic lowland with its depression-accumulative plain relief and sphagnum-reed marshes is of special mention.

Drained areas are occupied by NTUs with cereal crops, orchards and vineyards, yielding invariably high harvests.

 J. North Sub-Tropical Sub-Mediterranean Landscapes are met in extremely north-western part of the Caucasus between the cities of Anapa and Tuapse. They are located at 600m above sea level though, nearby the cities of Mikhailovka (between Gelendjik and Arhypo-Osipovka) and Orial (between Novorosiisk and Anapa) they go down to the seashore breaking the belt of foot-hill and hill landscapes into separate parts.

In the north-western part, these landscapes are represented by erosive-denudative steeply sloped down-hills. With increasing altitude of the south-eastern part of the Greater Caucasus, they turn into sloppy down-hills of high and medium steepness. They are composed of terrigenic-carbonate rocks.

The climate is sub-Mediterranean semi-humid. The January temperature varies within 0^oC-+ 3^oC and the July temperature within +20^oC - +22 ^o C. Annual amount of precipitation is 600-800 mm, with well-expressed summer minimum connected with prevailing semi-humid and semi-arid conditions. Snow cover is stable during the entire year. By some features, these landscapes are close to the southern shore of the Crimea.

Under such conditions, mezophyte oak (oak rocky and oak Medvedev-Quercus petraea, Q. Mtdwedewii) and Crimean-North Caucasus mountain and foot-hill forests mixed with other broad-leaved species, including pre-Mediterranean (Quercus pedunculiflora, Carpinus caucasica, etc) hemi-xeric and mezophyte forests become prevalent. Shore ridges are grown by pine forests (Pinus pithiusa), often with under-woods of Carpinus orientalis and Rhus coriaria. Juniper vegetation is well-adapted to such extremely dry climate conditions and thus, appears from place to place. There are also arid jumper sparse groves. These areas are dominated by brown and dark brown forest soils, usually forming a weak skeleton.

Agriculture lands do not occupy large areas within these landscapes. Natural-agrarian territorial units with vineyards, orchards, and tobacco plantations are only located on sloping hillsides and terraced bottoms of river gorges.

K. North Mediterranean Landscapes are well-adapted to the gorge of river Chorokhi within the area between the cities of Artvin and Borchkha (Turkay). The relief is mountainous-depression type, erosive-accumulative, gradually becoming erosive-denudative. Dominating forms of relief here are the slopes of high and medium steepness. Bottoms of gorges are located at 200-300 m above sea level, sometimes spreading as high as 600 m and reaching 700 m on the southern slopes.

Within small distance from Borchkha to Artvin, the climate changes sharply. Annual sums of atmospheric precipitation reduce from 2,500 mm to 300-400 mm. The summer minimum plays an important role in annual distribution of atmospheric precipitation. Similarly, winter temperatures fall sharply from +6˚ to +1˚, +2˚.

Bottoms of river gorges are covered by maquis of wild strawberry tree, rockrose and heather, grown on brown soils. Southern slopes are covered by xeric vegetation of shiblyak type, whilst northern slopes are occupied by Colchic forests grown on dark brown forest soils.

L. North Sub-Tropical Semi-Arid Landscapes are characteristic of the low mountains of the East Trans-Caucasus. They are met in Kobistan, on the Iori upland, Ceyran-Chele, and the Adjinaur, Shekin and Karamaryam plateaux.

All these territories are characterised by folded and blocked low-mountain ridges and depressions. The relief is distinctly outlined by anticline (anti-wedge) ridges with prevailing straight tectonic relief. Along with this, folded ridges with less distinct structures of relief are met. The relief is of arid-denudative and erosive-denudative type. Along with slopes of lower steepness there are very steep slopes turning into badlands. Molassa, rarely terrigenic-carbonate rocks are dominant geological structures.

The climate is sub-tropical semi-arid, weakly and moderately continental. The January temperature fluctuates within +0⁰C – +2⁰C. In winter, temperature inversions are not rare, when low temperatures stand long in locked valleys. The July temperature varies within +23⁰C – +25⁰C. Annual amount of precipitation is 400-500mm and is distinguished by two minimums of precipitation, one – in winter and the other in summer. The latter determines a long duration of semi-arid conditions, which itself determines specific features of landscapes. A stable snow cover is seldom phenomenon.

These types of landscapes are grown predominately by xeric (arid) open forests. Open forests of pistachio trees (Pistacia mutica) are widely spread within low-hill semi-arid landscapes. They usually grow on brown, rarely on grey- brown soils. Their upper tier is extremely sparse. Shrubberies with the dominance of Paliurus spinacliristi, Rhamnus palasi and Cotinus coggygri are grown under these woods. Steppe cereals: Botriochloa ischaemum, Festuca valesiaca, Stipa capillate are of high importance. Archy open forests are formed with several species of arborescent junipers (Juniferus polycarpos, J. foetidisima, J. excelsa, J. Obloga), often succeeding with pistachio. Their upper tiers are very sparse, with prevailing under-woods of xeric shrubs and steppe cereals. Large areas are occupied by hemi-xeric shrubs and shiblyaks (with prevailing Paliurusian Schibyak: Paliurus spina christi). Along with this, astragal and Acantalimon fryganas etc. are distributed here. Desert and semi-desert vegetation is met on dry southern slopes. Steppes occupy large areas.

Because of arid climate and highly eroded relief, this type of landscapes is relatively pristine. They are usually used as winter pastures.

M. Thermo-Moderate Humid Landscapes

Colchic Low-Mountain Forest Landscapes infringe the Colchic foot-hills as a relatively narrow (5-10km) strip, widening up to 10-12 km in Upper Imereti and Guria – Ajara (Georgia). Mountainous-valley landscapes of Racha-Lechkhumi and Inner Ajara also belong to this sub-type of landscapes. In the North Colchida, low mountain landscapes are found at altitude of 400-600m. In the central part, they are distributed at altitude of 300-600m, reaching the height of 700-800m in the South Colchida. In the Racha-lechkumi depression as well as within the basin of river Ajaristskai they are distributed as high as 900m above sea level.

The relief and geological structures are distinguished by high diversity. In the North Colchida, these landscapes are well-adapted to the southern slopes of steeply slopping ranges, made of limestone, as well as the bottoms of river gorges and canyons. Karst relief is widely spread here. Slopes of high and medium steepness with erosive-denudative relief composed of palaeogenic volcanic-sedimentary rocks prevail on the north macro-slope of the Ajara-Imeretian range. Various mountain rocks represent the Racha-Lechkhumi depression. The major part of the depression is composed of terrigenic and carbonate rocks with erosive-accumulative and karst relief. The Inner Ajara, composed of palaeogenic volcanic sedimentary rocks, is characterised by alternating patterns of relatively broad terraced gorges and narrow gorges and canyons. The relief is erosive-accumulative and erosive-denudative.

The climate is transitional from humid sub-tropical to thermo-moderate. The temperature fluctuates within +4⁰C – -1⁰C in January and +20⁰C–+22⁰C in July. Annual precipitation increases from 1000 to 2500mm. On the slopes facing the sea (and correspondingly the humid air masses) precipitation amount, on the contrary declines.

Hemi-xeric oak herbaceous forests on yellow-dark brown and brown forests soils prevail on the steep southern macro-slope, composed of limestone. Polydominant forests with thick evergreen under-woods grown on dark brown soils are dominant in shady gorges. In upper parts of gorges and on the northern macro-slope, they are replaced by beech forests with evergreen under-woods. NTUs, composed of hornbeam and hornbeam-beech forests with leaf-shedding under-woods grown on dark brown forest soils occupy intermediary habitats. In mountain depressions, lands are extensively cultivated. Natural-agrarian territorial units with vegetable gardens, tobacco plantations are widely spread here.

Colchic Middle-Mountain Forest Landscapes are spread in the mountainous areas of the Colchida at 600 (400)-1,200 (1,400) m above sea level. In some places, in southern Imereti for instance, they wedge out low mountain forest landscapes and come close to foot-hill and hilly landscapes of the Colchida, from place to place breaking a zone of middle mountain beech-dark coniferous forests, joining immediately uphill-forests and even high mountain sub-alpine landscapes of the Colchida. The greater part of these landscapes is composed of porphyrites, Jurassic schist (in the North and Central Colchida) and palaeogenic volcanic sedimentary rocks (in the South Colchida). An erosive-denudative relief with slopes of high and medium steepness is characteristic of these regions.

The climate is thermo-moderate, humid and littoral. The temperature decreases with increasing altitude. In January, it falls from – 0.6⁰C to – 5.5⁰C and in July from +19⁰C to +16⁰C. The amount of precipitation is connected with the number of factors. One of the major determining factors is the location of mountains in relation with prevailing arid air masses. For instance, if annual amount of precipitation in middle mountainous area of littoral Ajara varies within 2,500-3,000mm – it falls to almost 1,000 mm in deep locked gorges. In terms of precipitation distribution - the altitude is not a determining factor.

NTUs with beech forests and evergreen under-woods grown on dark brown (in karst region – humus consisting carbonate) soils prevail within the Colchic Middle Mountain Forest Landscapes. Drier areas such as crests or ranges of southern macro-slope are occupied by beech-hornbeam herbaceous forest grown on dark brown (or rendzin) soils. Transitional location is occupied by NTUs of beech forests with deciduous shrubs or herbaceous tier grown on dark brown soils (or rendzin). In the South Colchida and Lazistan, the morphological structure of landscapes becomes simpler. NTUs of beech-chestnut forests, with thick evergreen under-woods and sparse “Shkeriani” become prevalent. Populated areas, orchards and vegetable gardens emerge only on bottoms of wide terraced gorges.

Hyrcan Low-Mountain Forest Landscapes are spread in the south-east part of Azerbaijan in Tallish mountains and in Elburs mountains in Iran at altitude from 200 to 600m. Higher locations (up to 1,200m) are occupied by Hyrcan Middle Mountain Forest landscapes.

The relief in low and middle mountains is erosive-denudative with prevailing slopes of medium steepness, composed of Palaegene, volcanic-sedimentary rocks. In places where rivers (Vilyashchai, Lenkkoran and its trinutaries, Tangerud, Astara) cross dominating tectonic structures, directed from north-west to south-east, steeply sloped and weakly terraced gorges are prevalent.

The climate  is thermo-moderate, moderately continental in the Low-Mountain Forest Landscapes and thermo-moderate, weakly continental, humid in Middle-Mountain Forest landscapes. The temperature in low mountains varies within +1°– - 2° in January and +18°– +21°in July. Annual sums of precipitations vary within 900-1,200 mm (in some gorges they may reach 1,700 mm). In terms of precipitation distribution, there is no distinctly expressed summer minimum, so much characteristic of the Lenkoran lowland. Therefore, the moisture is evenly distributed during the year within the Hyrcan landscapes. Middle mountains have the amount of annual atmospheric precipitations (700-1000 mm) lower than low mountains. However, much lower temperatures determine less evaporation. Therefore, the humidity is much higher.

Hyrcan Low-Mountain Forest landscapes are mostly occupied by NTUs with mixed coniferous Hyrcan forests of chestnut-leafed oak, oak-hornbeam-iron clay and hornbeam-oak trees grown on mountainous yellow and yellow-brown soils. Crests and tops of medium mountains, and the south macro-slope are over-grown by pure oak forests of chestnut-leafed oak relicts, belonging to tertiary flora of Hyrcan origin. On medium hills, the amount of Georgian oak trees (Q. iberica), and in some places, of oriental oak trees (Q. macranthera) increase with an increase in altitude. Georgian oak becomes dominant at an attitude over 800m. Underneath oak forests, brown forest soils are formed. On the northern slopes of Middle Mountain Forest landscapes, beech (Fagus orientalis) and hornbeam-beech forests, grown on brown forest soils are prevalent.

One of the peculiarities of Hyrcan mountainous landscapes is the decrease in atmospheric precipitation with an increase in altitude, determining an increase in the share of semi-arid NTUs.

In Soviet times, due to high aesthetic value, the Tallish forests were designated a first category forest, with a restricting regime of commercial logging. That is why there are not many areas transformed by human activities. Small settlements, orchards and vegetable gardens are met only on the terraces of river gorges.

Kakhetian Low- Mountain Forest landscapes are spread in eastern part of the Greater Caucasus: Kakheti and Nukhi-Zakatala regions. Lower border passes foot-hills of the Alazani-Agrichai lowland at an altitude of 300-500m. Upper border is located at an altitude of 800m, runs through river gorges and crests, where it reaches 1,000m altitude.

The relief is erosive-denudative with slopes of high and medium steepness, laid of terrigenic and terrigenic-carbonate rocks. Under these conditions, forests rich in species specific to both Colchic and Hyrcan relict flora are formed.

The climate is thermo-moderate (+1°, -2° in January, +19°-+22° in July), humid, weakly continental with annual amount of precipitations varying within 700-1000 mm. The snow cover is formed at the end of December and lasts until the beginning of March.

The landscapes are very complex. The bottoms of river gorges and the slopes of northern macro-slope are dominated by high quality beech-chestnut forests (in lower parts mixed with hornbeam) with well-expressed tier of deciduous shrubbery, grown on brown forest soils and sometimes mixed with lianas. Moderately humid slopes and upper parts of crests are occupied by beech- hornbeam forests, including oak trees with herbaceous tier.

With a decreasing humidity and an increasing atmospheric temperature, derivative oak forests with a shrubbery tier and oak-hornbeam forests grown on brown soils, succeed each other. Small patches of shiblyak, grown on brown soils, occupy relatively dry areas.

The Kakhetian Low-Mountain Forest landscapes are relatively intact and thus, natural-agrarian territories appear rarely.

South-East Caucasian (Transitional to Semi-Humid) Low-Mountain Forest Landscapes are distributed in the Central and East Trans-Caucasus. They are met at an altitude varying from 400m to 1,400m. In relatively humid regions, lower border goes down, while in more arid regions, it goes up. Most typically, low mountain forest landscapes are spread at 800-1,200m above sea level.

The relief is erosive-denudative, rarely erosive-accumulative, with prevailing slopes of medium and high steepness, mostly composed of terrigenic and volcanic-sedimentary rocks.

The climate is thermo-moderate (January -1⁰C -20⁰C, July +18⁰C +21⁰C), humid, transitional to semi-humid. Annual sums of precipitations vary within 600-700mm and in summer, some deficit of humidity is noticed.

Oak forests (Q. iberica) with deciduous shrubs and rare herbaceous tiers, grown on brown lixiviated soils are most widely spread in low mountain forest landscapes, well-adapted to habitats with warm, moderately humid climate. Oak forests with herbaceous tiers, grown on brown lixiviated soils and dark brown weak unsaturated soils are adapted to relatively arid and colder habitats. Oak trees with thick shrubbery tier and correspondingly thin vertical structures (8-16m), grown on brown lixiviated soils are well-adjusted to crests and slopes of the South macro-slope. In lower parts, they are substituted by oak-hornbeam forests with herbal tiers. On the border with middle mountain forests, NTUs of transitional character with hornbeam-oak shrub and herbaceous forests, grown on brown weak unsaturated soils are distributed. On extremely humid and relatively cool northern slopes, NTUs characteristic of middle mountains, such as beech forests with shrubbery tier are widely spread.

South-East Caucasian Middle-Mountain Forest Landscapes are widely spread in middle mountains of the Central and East Trans-Caucasus at altitudes varying within 1,000-1,600m. On the southern slopes of Kakhetian “Kaukasioni” and adjacent regions of Azerbaijan, due to relatively humid climate, lower border descents to 700-800m and in Karabakh, due the arid climate this border, on the contrary, rises to the height of 1,400m.

The relief is middle-mountain erosive-denudative, rarely, erosive-accumulative, with slopes of medium and high steepness.

The climate is thermo-moderate and moderate (January temperature -2⁰C -5⁰C, July temperature +16⁰C +18⁰C), humid. Annual amount of precipitation is 700-900 mm. However, on the slopes of Kakhetian “Kaukasioni” the amount of precipitation increases to 1,200-1,400mm, and in the south-east part of the Lesser Caucasus, falls to 600mm.

NTUs of beech forests with deciduous shrubbery and herbaceous tiers, grown on typical brown forest soils are the most widely spread. More seldom appear beech-hornbeam forests, grown on brown forest and weak unsaturated soils and oak and oak-hornbeam forests with herbaceous tier, grown on brown weak unsaturated forest soils. Place to place, pine forests with herbaceous tier on acid brown soils are met. On the slopes of Kakhetian “Kavkasioni” beech forests with hornbeam, and rarely with chestnut, grown on brown typical forest soils are distributed. On the Lesser Caucasus, forests turn into meadows, connected with human activities.

Overall, the landscapes are not significantly changed by human activities. Settlements, orchards, vegetable gardens, rarely, arable lands represent Natural-Agrarian Territorial Units here. Broad terraced river gorges and flat areas are occupied by cultivated lands.

Pontic Middle Mountain Forest (Sub-Colchic) Landscapes belong to East Trans-Caucasus Forest landscapes. They are spread in Pontic Mountains in Turkey. Here they are well-adapted to the West macro-slopes and are mainly composed of middle mountain erosive-denudative relief, being a friendly environment for flourishing oak forests with a number of Colchic elements.

N. Thermo-Moderate Semi-Humid Mountain Landscapes are mostly distributed in Pontic Mountains in Turkey where they are well-adapted to the southern macro-slope and are spread in gorges of rivers Kelkit and Chorokh, and in inter-mountainous depressions southwards from the main chain of the Pontic range.

The climate is semi-humid, very favorable for growing oak trees. Thus, oak forests grown on brown soils together with Schibyaks having Mediterranean elements are widely distributed there. Middle mountains are occupied by pine forests and meadows adjacent to forests.

O. Thermo-Moderate Semi-Arid Landscapes are divided into three sub-types: Anatolian Upland and Middle Mountain Forest Landscapes; Pontic Mountainous-Steppe and Shiblyak Landscapes; and Front Asian Middle-Mountain Steppe and Shiblyak Landscapes.

Anatolian Upland and Middle-Mountain Forest Landscapes are usually found in the central part of the Anatolian upland in Turkey and the northern part of the Iranian plateau. The Caucasus part involves only the most northern part of these landscapes. Due to semi-arid climate, steppes and Shiblyak vegetation, grown on brown soils are widely spread. These landscapes are beyond the Caucasus eco-region.

Pontic Mountain Steppe and Shiblyak Landscapes are widely spread in the lower parts of rivers Kelkita, Chorokhi and Oltu in Turkey. The aridity of the climate provides favourable conditions for wide distribution of steppe, shiblyak and phrygana vegetation.

Front Asian Middle-Mountain Steppe and Shiblyak Landscapes are found in the northern part of the Iranian plateau. Steppes together with shiblyak and phrygana vegetation are widely spread here. The extreme part of these landscapes belongs exclusively to the Caucasus eco-region.

P. Thermo-Moderate Arid Landscapes are distributed in Iran and the south side of the Kura-Araks lowland near the borders of Armenia and Azerbaijan. They are represented by down-hill and low-hill desert type hamadas and semi-deserts. Middle mountains and plateau landscapes are occupied by deserts, saltines and semi-deserts.

Q. Temperate Humid Landscapes are widely distributed in the North Caucasus. These landscapes are divided into two sub-types.

North-Caucasian Low-Mountain Forest Landscapes stretch as a narrow (5-20km) strip along the northern macro-slope of the Greater Caucasus, breaking into parts from place to place. They are met at an altitude of 300-500m, sometimes reaching 1,000-1,100m. Erosive-denudative, and in some places, karst reliefs are mainly met here. The relief consists of terrigenic, terrigenic-carbonate and carbonate, more seldom molassa deposits. Slopes of medium and high steepness are dominant forms of relief. In places, where river gorges are cut by mountain ranges, difficult to pass canyon-type gorges are formed.

The climate is moderate humid, weakly and moderately continental. The temperature in January is -3⁰C, -5⁰C, in July +18⁰C, +21⁰C. The annual amount of precipitation is 600-800mm, recorded mostly in warm seasons.

Under such condition, mixed-oak forests are dominant. In the western part of the northern macro-slope of the Greater Caucasus, the most prevalent is the Georgian oak. Along with oak forests, oak-hornbeam forests are spread. In Dagestan, due to arid climate, thorny shrub thickets are prevalent, but their existence is also connected with cutting of aboriginal forests. Here prevail brown forest soils, rarely, brown lixiviated soils, and in karst regions-rendzins.

The landscapes are not transformed significantly by human activities. Small plots of settled areas with orchards, vegetable gardens, rarely, arable lends are met here.

North-Caucasian Middle- Mountain Forest Landscapes are located along the northern macro-slope of the Greater Caucasus, at altitudes varying from 800-1,000 to 1,500-1,800m. In the regions of the Kabardin and North Ossetian plains they encounter plain landscapes and on the meridian of Elbrus, on Bermamit plateau are wedged out by middle mountain forest landscapes.

These landscapes are characterised by middle mountain erosion-denudative relief with slopes of medium and high steepness, laid of terrigenic, rarely terrigenic-carbonate and molassive formations. Canyon-like gorges characterise the karst regions.

The climate is moderate, weakly or moderately continental. The temperature in January varies from-3^oC to -6^oC and in July +15⁰C +19⁰C. The amount of precipitation is the same as in low mountain forest landscapes but the humidity is higher due to lower summer temperatures. Precipitation maximums are recorded in summer seasons.

These landscapes are mostly occupied by beech forests. There are also beech-hornbeam, rarely, hornbeam-oak and oak forests. In places, where forests are located close to human settlements, meadows adjacent to forests and thickets of mezophyte shrubs are distributed. Brown forest soils; rendzins-in karst regions; and humus containing-carbonate soils are dominant types of soils.

The landscapes are slightly changed by human activities. Natural-agrarian territorial units are mostly met in wide, terraced river valleys.

R. Temperate Semi-Humid Landscapes are represented by two sub-types of landscapes.

North-Caucasian Middle-Mountain Meadow and Meadow-Steppe Landscapes are distributed as a number of isolated patches. The largest sector is found between the cities of Cherkessk and Baksan. The region is characterised by karst middle mountain relief with slopes of medium and high steepness, laid of carbonate and terrigenic-carbonate deposits. These landscapes are also met in the Inner Dagestan, where they are well-adapted to river valleys. Here two types of relief are pre-dominant: karst, with slopes of medium and high steepness and erosive-denudative, with slopes composed of terrigenic deposits.

The climate is moderate, semi-humid, moderate-continental. The temperature in January is -4^o C, -5 ⁰C and in July - +16⁰C, +18⁰C. Annual sums of precipitation fluctuate within 450 to 600mm. Semi-arid conditions are frequent in summer, determining the relative aridity of these landscapes.

In the western part, middle mountain meadows and meadow-steppes, rarely (in more humid gorges) beech and hornbeam-oak forests, grown on rendzins and humus-carbonate soils are widely distributed. Meadows, meadow-steppes, phrygana vegetation, etc. grown on brown soils are dominant in Dagestan. An absence of forest vegetation s connected with the influence of human activities.

A considerable part of the landscapes is changed by human activities, especially in Dagestan. The major part of the land area is occupied by NTUs with settlement, terraced agricultural lands, orchards and vegetable gardens. Arable lands are also widely spread together with pastures and hey fields.

Pontic Middle-Mountain and High-Mountain Meadow-Steppe and Forest Landscapes are spread on the South chains of Pontic Mountains, in the very place, where they border the Anatolian upland. Medium Mountainous plateaux with pine forests and meadows are characteristic of this sub-type of landscapes.

S. Temperate Semi-arid Landscapes are spread in the North Caucasus and on the Javakheti-Armenian volcanic plateau. In the lake Sevan basin (south and west parts), these landscapes are located at an altitude of 1,800-2,000m, in Akhaltsikhe depression - 900-1,500m, and on the Armenian highlands – on the slopes of ranges framing the Ararat Valley.

The relief is of mountain-depression type denudative-erosive-accumulative. It is characterised by flat and inclined alluvial -proluvial bottoms adjacent to erosive-denudative foot-hills, laid of volcanic terrigenic formations.

The climate is moderate (January is -4 ⁰C-6 ⁰C and in July +16⁰C +19⁰C), semi-arid, moderately continental. The annual amount of precipitation is 400-450mm.

There prevail following NTUs:

- Shiblyaks on brown typical soils;

- Phrygana on brown carbonate soils;

- Grasslands and grassy-multi-herbaceous steppes on brown soils and chernozems;

- Meadow-steppes on brown soils.

The landscapes are considerably changed by human activities and there prevail natural-agrarian territories with arable lands, vegetable gardens and settled areas. The Akaltsikhe depression is mostly occupied by orchards.

Of special mention is the high Javakheti-Armenian volcanic plateau, over-grown by steppe and meadow-steppe vegetation. These landscapes are spread on the Akhalkalaki and Tsalka plateaux in Georgia, karst plateau in Turkey and the surroundings of the city of Giumri (the former Leninakan) in Armenia. The height interval is 1,500-2,000m. These landscapes represent typical high volcanic plateaux with plain relief in the centre and hills and foot-hills - in peripheries. Occasionally, plateaux are cloven by deep canyons, cut down by rivers. Plateaux are composed of young volcanic deposits alternating with lake and alluvial deposits. The remains of former lakes occupy considerable areas even now.

The climate is moderate, semi-arid, moderately continental (-4°, -5° in January, +15-18° in July). Total annual precipitation varies within 500-600 mm. However, summer time is distinguished by reduced humidity.

The major NTUs are as follow:

- Feather-grasses and steppes on black soils (chernozems);

- Meadow-grassy and multi-herbaceous steppes on black soils;

- Steppified multi-herbaceous and grassy-herbaceous meadows and steppes on meadow chernozems;

- Fragments of pine forests on brown forest podzol soils.

A major part of the landscapes is ploughed and occupied by grain fields and potatoes. Hilly areas and high foot-hills are used as summer pastures. Selitebic plots occupy considerable areas as well.

In the North Caucasus, moderate semi-arid landscapes are well-adjusted to the altitudes varying from 600-700 m to 1,100-1,300m, and are spread exclusively in inter-mountainous depressions. The depressions are made of terrigenic and molassa rocks and their bottoms are characterised by erosive-accumulative relief.

Due to the locked nature of depressions, there is a great deficit of moisture, especially, in summer periods. The annual amount of precipitation is 400-600mm. The January temperature is -2 ⁰C, -4 ⁰C and the July - +15⁰C, +17⁰C.

Under such conditions, specific vegetation is formed. Mountain steppes are represented by feather grass communities, sometimes with the participation of bear grass. They are changed by the shrubbery thickets with the participation of Acer campestre (species Crataegus, Comus mass, Paliurus spina-christi, Rhammus pallastii). Among upland xerophytes, the most widely spread are the species of Ostragalus, Acanthlimor, and Onobrychis.

In the Inner Dagestan, meadow-steppes (multi-herbaceous- peristo- feather- grass, etc.), arid steppes and steppified meadows are widely spread. Tragacant thickets are most frequently represented by thyme- feather- grass (species Thymus) and steppe-specific grass (with the participation of feather grass, etc) on brown and occasionally alluvial soils, including rendzins.

A major part of landscapes is significantly changed by man. Natural-agrarian territorial units with Selitebic plots, grain crops, orchards and vegetable gardens occupy wide areas within these landscapes.

T. Temperate Arid Landscapes are specific to the bottoms of the Ararat Valley and the slopes framing it, as well as Nakhichevan and Turkey (at an altitude of 1,000-1,200m). Arid-denudative disported steep and slightly sloped low-mountains, foot-hills, and rarely, hilly plains are major relief forms. They are composed of volcanic sedimentary and terrigenic carbonate rocks. The Ararat Valley has flat, and on edges sloppy, feebly cloven plain relief, composed of alluvial and proluvial Quaternary deposits.

The climate is moderate (January temperature is -4 ⁰C, -6 ⁰C and July +21⁰C, +24⁰C), moderately continental, arid in the Ararat Valley and thermo-moderate in the region of Megri. Annual amount of precipitation is 200-300mm with an observed great deficit of humidity from June through October.

Such climate conditions are favourable for forming ephemeral fragrant absinthe (Artemisia fragans, Poa bulbosa, Colpodium humile, species Gagea, Tulipa, Bronus, Eremopyron, Aegilops) deserts, (Artemisia fragans, Poa bulbosa, Colpodium humile, species of Gagea, Tulipa, Bromus, Eremopyron, Aegilops) on hilly desert-steppe fallow and hilly lightchestnut, somewhat skeleton soils.

In the Ararat Valley, the closeness of water table to the earth surface provides additional moisture. That is why here meadow NTUs occupy considerable areas. "Mediterranean" rich perennial-salty halophytic deserts with participation of annual solonchaks on somewhat moist solonchak saltines in combination with halophytic meadows and communities of halophytic species of absinthe are well-adapted to relatively saline conditions. In areas adjacent to foot-hills, phrygana vegetation, grown on grey-brown soils is prevalent.

These deserts, known in the scientific literature as the "Kura-Araks" (east-Caucasian) deserts, are mixed with the semi-shrub thickets (Salsola nodulosa, S.ericoides, S. dendroides) or tragacant astragals, acantalimon, semi-shrub labiatase, and sometimes steppe grains. Relatively humid areas are occupied by arid open woods (at present nearly fully removed) and vegetation, grown on brown and grey-brown soils.

A major part of the Ararat Valley is transformed by human activities and occupied by irrigated agricultural lands (arable lands, orchards, and vineyards). Within these landscapes, a lower part of Yerevan, Armenian capital and the main industrial region of Armenia are located. Steep slopes are also occupied by irrigated agricultural lands (arable lands, orchards, and vineyards). Settlements occupy considerable areas as well.

U. Cold-moderate Landscapes are one of the most specific types of landscapes among the Caucasus landscapes. Of them, the most distinct are the Middle Mountain Dark Coniferous Forest Landscapes.

Middle-Mountain Dark Coniferous Forest Landscapes are characterised by the optimum combination of heat and moisture, which enables the NTUs to accumulate biomass the largest not only in the Caucasus but also all over Europe. They are distributed in the western part of the Caucasus. In the Central Trans-Caucasus, they are represented by a number of small patches until the village Bevreti, located in 15-km distance westwards from Tbilisi. In the North Caucasus, they are spread until the river B. Zelenchuk basin.

The relief is erosive-denudative and karst. The erosive-denudiative relief is characterised by slopes of medium and high steepness, composed of various geological deposits: crystal and metamorphic rocks of Palaeozoic, Jurassic slates and porphyrites, palaeogenic and neogenic sandstones. On the Ajara-Imereti and Trialeti ranges widely-spread are the volcanic sedimentary rocks of palaeogenic period. It is noteworthy, that the high diversity in geological structure is not reflected in relief, vegetation and even soils.

The karst relief provides the formation of very specific vegetation and soil types. Existence of limestone determines a wide dissemination of canyon-type gorges, rocky deposits and karst reliefs. Under such conditions, calcic flora and rendzin and humus-carbonate soils are formed.

The climate is cold moderate, humid, littoral and weakly continental. The temperature in January is -3 ⁰C, -6 ⁰C and in July +14⁰C, +16⁰C. Annual amount of precipitation is sufficient everywhere, though is characterised by high variation, ranging from 700mm in the Central Trans-Caucasian and North Caucasus up to 3, 000mm in the mountains of Adjara and Guria and also on the ranges of the Great Caucasus facing the sea. There is no deficit of humidity. The snow cover is stable from the end of October-November through April.

The landscapes are only slightly changed by man. The plots with settlements, vegetable gardens and small arable lands are mostly met on the bottoms of broader terraced parts of river gorges.

V. High Mountain Forest-Meadow Landscapes are widely distributed in those high mountainous regions of the Caucasus, which are located on two largest parts of extended mountain system (Central and Dagestan) corresponding to the newest Caucasian transverse uplift, as well as in orographically isolated deep inter-mountain depressions and river gorges. In other regions, these landscapes have limited area of distribution.

The relief is erosive-denudative, with steep slopes, composed of the most diverse geological formations varying from crystal and metamorphic to sedimentary Quaternary. From place to place, wide bottoms of river gorges and depressions are met, having both erosive-accumulative and palaeo-glacial origin.

The climate is cold moderate, humid. The temperature in January is -5 ⁰C, -7 ⁰C and in July +12⁰C, +14⁰C. Annual sums of precipitation fluctuate within the broad range from 700mm in Dagestan to 2,000-2,500mm in the Colchida.

The forests are mostly composed of birch (Betula Litwmowii, B. Medwedewii, B. Megrelica), pine (Pinus Sosnovskii), oak (Quercus macrantera, in Colchi - Q. pontica), maple (Acer Trautvetteri) and some other wood species specific to high mountain forest landscapes. They form specific groups: open forests, low forests, crooked forests and shrubs, connected to the plants’ adaptation to the extreme high mountainous conditions. Woodlands alternate with sections of upper-mountain and high-mountain meadows, among which tall herbaceous vegetation is worth of mentioning. Mountainous, forest-meadow, typical and dark soils are the dominant types of soils. Occasionally, appear the fallow forest, podzolised and typical soils. Limestone containing regions are pre-dominated by rendzins.

Historically, high mountain forests were intensively cut for farming activities. Therefore, at present, meadows, used for grazing and hey production, occupy significant areas here. High mountains are favourite places for seasonal settlements, occupied by shepherds.

Anatolian Middle-Mountain Forest and Forest-Meadow Landscapes are spread in Turkey and in the North Anatolya. In addition, they are characteristic of areas embracing meadow-steppes and occasionally xeric vegetations.

Unlike middle-mountain forest landscapes specific to Anatolia, Anatolian High-Mountain Coniferous Forest Landscapes belong to the sub-type of high mountain forest landscapes. From place to place, coniferous forests are mixed with xeric vegetation and have Mediterranean elements.

V. High Mountain Meadow Landscapes

Caucasian High-Mountain Sub-Alpine Forest-Shrubbery-Meadow Landscapes occupy the lowest hypsometric location among the Caucasus High Mountain Meadow landscapes. In different regions of the Caucasus, the lower border of these landscapes fluctuates within the height of 1,800-2,600m and the upper – 2,400-2,900m. In these continental, relatively arid regions, as compared with very humid littoral regions, the duration of nival staxes is less and under such conditions, the production of phytomass is somewhat greater. That is why in these regions, highland sub-alpine landscapes are well-adapted to high altitudes. It is noteworthy that sub-alpine landscapes rarely have well-delineated upper borders and they, usually, gradually turn into alpine landscapes.

Sub-alpine meadow landscapes are characterised by denudative and palaeo-glacial reliefs. In terms of morphology, the denudiative relief is related to steep, often rocky slopes. Palaeo-glacial relief is strongly related to the morphological forms created by ancient glaciation, representing valleys, bottoms and circus inclines and a set of smaller forms ("roche mountonnee" (“the ram’s forehead”), moraines, “hanging valleys" etc).

In terms of their origin, mountain rocks, making up of high mountain sub-alpine landscapes, can be sub-divided into three groups: volcanic, carbonate and silicate. These rocks determine the existence of special forms of relief. For instance, volcanic rocks are characterised by high mountainous lava plateaux and volcanic cones, whilst carbonate rocks are characterised by Karst reliefs.

The climate is High Mountain severe. The temperature is -8 ⁰C - -10 ⁰C in January and in July +8⁰C - +12⁰C. The annual amount of precipitation fluctuates from 500mm (in arid regions of Inner Dagestan and Armenia) to 1,500-2,000mm (in the Colchida). The snow cover is stable from the early October through the early May.

Following major NTUs are met within the High-Mountain Meadow Landscapes:

The vegetation is grown predominantly on mountain-forest-meadow, typical mountain-meadow and turf soils. Rendzins are also met.

Front Asian High-Mountain Meadow and Meadow-Steppe Landscapes are specific of the Minor Asia Highlands. They are found drier in comparison with the Caucasus sub-alpine meadow landscapes. Therefore, meadow-steppes dominate here, whilst sub-alpine meadows are found only as separate parcels.

Caucasian High-Mountain Alpine Shrubbery-Meadow Landscapes are widely spread in axial part of the Main Caucasus Range and its spurs. They are met in the highest parts of the Lesser Caucasus and the Javakheti-Armenian highlands. High locations are mostly, determined by thermal conditions. An important role is also played by the continentality and humidity of the climate. In the Colchida, alpine landscapes are distributed at the altitudes varying within 2,400-3,000 m. In the North Caucasus, the central part and the Lesser Caucasus, the alpine landscapes are found at 2,600-3,100m. The highest locations by these landscapes are occupied on the Javakheti-Armenian highlands and in the Inner Dagestan, where they are distributed at altitudes of 2,700-3,300m.

Similar to sub-alpine landscapes, alpine landscapes are composed of various mountain rocks. However, crystal and metamorphic rocks and Jurassic schist prevail on the Great Caucasus, while the Lesser Caucasus and the Javakheti-Armenian highlands are characterised by volcanic and volcanogenic rocks of Palaeocene-Quaternary ages. Limestone appears from place to place. Due to the diverse geological structure, the relief is also characterised by high variety. Both volcanic and karst reliefs are found here.

The climate is High Mountain severe. The temperature is -12 ⁰C – -14 ⁰C in January and +5⁰C – +7⁰C in July. The annual amount of precipitation varies within 600-1,500mm. The snow cover is formed from the late September – early October through the late May –early June.

Alpine meadows (of Festuca supina, Carex tristis, C.Medwedewii Alchimilla caucasica, Lofus caucasica, etc) are the dominant NTUs within the alpine landscapes. The "Alpine carpets"-thickets of low-grown compact turf forming plants resembling the multicoloured Persian carpets, emerge occasionally. The Northern slopes are grown by thickets of the Caucasian rhododendron.

The soils are mostly mountainous-meadow typical and turfy; Rendzins prevail in the karst regions.

High-Mountain Sub-Nival Landscapes are distributed on the Greater Caucasus. Specifically, they occupy the highest hypsometric locations on the Main Caucasian Range, Svanetian and some other ranges. On the Javakheti-Armenian highlands and the Lesser Caucasus, sub-nival landscapes occupy summits of separate mountain massifs and the ranges (Aragats, Abul-Samara, Hegam, Murovdag and Zangezur ranges). The height interval is 3,000-4,000m, though in the West Caucasus these landscapes may be found below 300m and in the Central and Eastern Caucasus may start only from 3,500m.

In the West and the Central Caucasus, sub-nival landscapes are composed of intrusive (granite etc.), metamorphic and sedimentary formations. Volcanic rocks pre-dominate in the Central and East Caucasus and on the Javakheti-Armenian highlands.

Sub-nival landscapes are characterised by typical and steep rocky crests, often with summits difficult to reach. Palaeo-glacial forms of relief – circus and glacial moraines are widely-spread as well. In volcanic regions, major and side volcanic cones and lava plateau represent the major morphological forms of relief. The sub-nival landscapes are characterised by continuous rocks and “stony rivers and seas”.

The climate is severe. The January temperature is -15 ⁰C - -17 ⁰C and in July +3⁰C - +5⁰C. The annual amount of precipitation varies within 700-1,500mm.

The vegetation cover within the sub-nival landscapes is extremely reduced. Species like Alopecurus glacialis Jurinella subacualis, Delfinium caucasicum etc are found prevalent. Alpine species appear occasionally. In Dagestan, endemic high mountainous rocky talus flora is pre-dominant. The volcanic regions are characterised by Physoptychis gnaphaloides, Didymofisa aucheri, Astragalus geseldarensis, Symphyandra armena, etc.

The soils are of primitive structure, often of “nested” nature, thin and very skeletal.

The sub-nival landscapes are practically intact and rearly visited by mountaineers.

W. Glacial–Nival Landscapes.

There are 2,047 glaciers in the Caucasus and nearly 70% of all glaciers, including glaciations' regions, are located on the northern slope and the rest on the southern one. The difference is explained by orographic peculiarities, the amount of snow carried by snowstorms, watershed barriers, and increased insulation on the southern slope. The Central Caucasus is the most glaciated region, where five glaciers (Dikhsu, Bezengi, Karaugum -on the North slope, Lekhzir and Tsanner on its South slope), with a total area exceeding 35-40km sq. and the length over 12 km, are located.

The climate is extremely severe. The January temperature is -17 ⁰C, -25 ⁰C and the July - +1⁰C, +2⁰C in the zone of ablation, but the temperature in the zone of glacier formation equals -3˚, -5˚. The amount of atmospheric precipitation is not much varying within 500-700 mm, mainly in the form of snow.

The vegetation is represented only by separate species of lower (mainly lichen, rarely moss and water plant) plants, which are grown on individual boulders, moraines and rocky outlets. Therefore, the glacial-nival landscapes are considered to be devoid of soil-vegetation cover.

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